This article examines how heavy LIST operations in unstructured storage systems like Ceph and etcd consume massive I/O, network and CPU, threaten cluster stability, and offers detailed code analysis, performance testing, and practical tuning recommendations to keep large‑scale Kubernetes clusters reliable.
Serverless, once a niche concept, is rapidly becoming a core paradigm in cloud computing, offering resource decoupling, automatic scaling, and usage‑based billing, while its adoption in databases introduces unique challenges such as persistence, connection handling, and performance, prompting ongoing research and evolving commercial implementations.
The article analyzes the memory inefficiency of storing per‑user read/unread lists for group chat messages, proposes a bitmap‑based solution with user‑to‑map ID mapping, discusses handling of member exits, and evaluates the storage savings and scalability of the new design.
This article presents 36 practical guidelines for backend engineers covering interface parameter validation, compatibility, extensibility, idempotency, logging, error handling, security, rate limiting, caching, transaction management, and more, helping you design reliable, maintainable, and high‑performance APIs across any language.
This comprehensive guide explores essential backend development concepts—from system design principles like high cohesion and low coupling, through architecture patterns such as high availability and load balancing, to network communication, fault handling, monitoring, and deployment strategies, providing clear explanations for developers.
The article explains the AKF principle for microservice design, detailing how X‑axis horizontal replication, Y‑axis functional splitting, and Z‑axis data‑centric partitioning address single‑point failures, capacity limits, and performance bottlenecks by employing master‑master, master‑slave, and master‑backup replication patterns.
This article explains why databases become slow, introduces a four‑layer thinking model, and presents eight practical solutions—including reducing data volume, leveraging space for performance, and selecting the right storage system—to help backend engineers resolve 80‑90% of common performance problems.
This article walks through the step‑by‑step evolution of a high‑traffic e‑commerce site—from a single‑machine setup to cloud‑native microservices—detailing each architectural milestone, the technologies involved, and the design principles that guide scaling from hundreds to millions of concurrent users.
Netflix built the Rapid Event Notification (RENO) system to deliver real‑time, scalable, and prioritized notifications across millions of devices, handling diverse use cases such as watch activity, personalization updates, plan changes, and diagnostics while managing high request‑per‑second loads through a hybrid push‑pull model and targeted delivery.
This article details the architecture, challenges, and solutions behind a high‑traffic Spring Festival shake‑and‑red‑packet system, covering prototype design, bandwidth and request‑rate handling, access clusters, overload protection, and iterative versions that achieved up to 110 billion shakes with peak loads of 14 million requests per second.
This article traces Taobao’s architectural evolution—from a single‑machine setup to distributed clusters, caching layers, load‑balancing proxies, database sharding, microservices, ESB, containerization, and finally cloud‑native deployment—highlighting the technologies and design principles that enable scaling from hundreds to tens of millions of concurrent users.
This article explains why cache penetration can cripple ultra‑large systems, how storing full data in Redis eliminates the risk, and presents two reliable cache‑update strategies—message‑queue‑driven updates and real‑time MySQL Binlog subscription via Canal—complete with configuration steps and Java code examples.
This article outlines the step‑by‑step evolution of a high‑traffic e‑commerce backend—from a single‑machine setup to cloud‑native microservices—illustrating the technologies and design principles needed to scale from hundreds to tens of millions of concurrent users.
Using Taobao as a case study, this article traces the step‑by‑step evolution of a high‑traffic backend—from a single‑machine setup through database sharding, caching, load balancing, microservices, containerization, and finally cloud deployment—highlighting the technologies and design principles that enable scaling to millions of concurrent users.
This article explains the background, design principles, high‑concurrency handling, storage optimization, rule‑engine implementation, and intelligent scheduling needed to create a universal, stable, extensible, and intelligent recommendation slot that enriches short‑video app ecosystems.
This article explains how to evolve a simple single‑server web application into a highly available, horizontally and vertically scalable system for billions of users by covering DNS, vertical and horizontal scaling, load balancing, database replication, sharding, denormalization, SQL/NoSQL choices, stateless design, caching, CDN and global deployment.
ByteHouse, born from ByteDance’s extensive use of ClickHouse, transformed a high‑performance OLAP engine into a cloud‑native, scalable data warehouse by addressing scalability, elasticity, high availability, and multi‑tenant challenges through architectural redesign, custom storage layers, and advanced metadata management.
This document describes the background, problems, requirements, analysis, and detailed design of a high‑performance, highly available, and scalable log‑analysis pipeline for MySQL that leverages Kafka, ClickHouse, MySQL, and custom services to aggregate, enrich, and visualize massive query logs.
The article explains how to address single‑point failures and capacity limits in server clusters by applying the AKF principle, detailing X‑axis horizontal replication, Y‑axis business‑function splitting, and Z‑axis data‑access splitting to achieve robust, scalable microservice architectures.
This article uses Taobao as a case study to trace the step‑by‑step evolution of a high‑traffic backend system—from a single‑machine setup through caching, load balancing, database sharding, microservices, ESB, containerization, and finally cloud‑native deployment—while highlighting the key technologies and design principles at each stage.
This article chronicles Lyft's evolution from a PHP monolith to a Python and Go microservice architecture, detailing the development and testing environments—including Devbox, Onebox, integration testing, pre‑release staging, and the migration to Kubernetes—while highlighting the scalability and productivity challenges faced as the service count grew to hundreds.
The article explains how I/O and CPU bottlenecks increase active database connections, then details various sharding techniques—including horizontal and vertical database/table partitioning, their concepts, results, scenarios, and analysis—followed by tools, implementation steps, common issues, and best‑practice recommendations.
This article explains microservice fundamentals, their advantages, and how to design data architectures that support independent services, covering database-per-service versus shared databases, polyglot persistence, scaling strategies, and a detailed MongoDB case study with practical guidelines.
This article details the design and implementation of a highly available, high‑performance membership system serving over a billion users, covering Elasticsearch dual‑center clusters, traffic isolation, Redis caching, MySQL migration, and fine‑grained flow‑control and degradation strategies.
The article argues that launching a brand‑new project using microservices often incurs excessive infrastructure, cultural, and operational costs that outweigh the touted benefits, and suggests that a well‑designed modular monolith can be a more pragmatic alternative for many teams.
This article presents a comprehensive overview of Huya's live‑streaming recommendation system, covering business background, overall architecture, vector‑based retrieval, detailed ranking pipeline, technical challenges, deployment strategies, scalability, and future outlook.
This article details the design and implementation of a highly available, high‑performance membership system serving billions of users, covering Elasticsearch dual‑center clusters, traffic‑isolated architectures, deep ES optimizations, Redis caching with distributed locks, dual‑center MySQL partitioning, migration strategies, abnormal account handling, and future fine‑grained flow‑control and degradation policies.
This article systematically presents thirty architectural patterns—covering management, monitoring, performance, scalability, data handling, design, messaging, resilience, and security—to help engineers design, implement, and operate robust, high‑performance distributed systems.
This article guides readers through the evolution from a monolithic e‑commerce application to a highly available, scalable, low‑latency event‑driven microservices architecture, covering design patterns, principles, API gateway, BFF, service aggregation, CQRS, event sourcing, and technology stack choices such as Kafka and Cassandra.
This comprehensive guide teaches how to design scalable, highly available microservice architectures by applying design patterns, principles, and best practices, covering the evolution from monolithic to event‑driven systems, communication strategies, data management techniques, and technology choices such as API gateways, BFF, CQRS, and Kafka.
This article walks through the step‑by‑step evolution of a basic single‑server e‑commerce system into a large‑scale, distributed architecture, explaining core concepts, each architectural upgrade, the technologies involved, and key design principles for building scalable, high‑availability services.
This comprehensive guide walks you through evolving a monolithic e‑commerce application into a highly available, scalable, low‑latency, event‑driven microservices system capable of handling millions of requests, covering design patterns, principles, best practices, and technology choices.
This article provides a comprehensive technical guide on building large‑scale distributed websites, covering characteristics, architectural goals, patterns, performance, high‑availability, scalability, extensibility, security, agility, and a detailed e‑commerce case study with practical diagrams and capacity estimations.
This article provides a comprehensive technical overview of large‑scale distributed website architecture, covering characteristics, design goals, architectural patterns, performance, high availability, scalability, extensibility, security, agility, evolution stages, capacity estimation, and practical optimization techniques for e‑commerce platforms.
This article details the design and implementation of a high‑availability membership system, covering Elasticsearch dual‑center master‑slave clusters, traffic‑isolated three‑cluster ES architecture, Redis multi‑center caching, MySQL dual‑center partitioning, data migration strategies, and refined flow‑control and degradation mechanisms to ensure stable, low‑latency service under massive concurrent load.
This article outlines the step‑by‑step evolution of Taobao's backend architecture—from a single‑machine setup to distributed clusters, caching, load balancing, database sharding, microservices, containerization, and finally cloud‑native deployment—highlighting the technologies and design principles involved at each stage.
This article walks through Taobao’s journey from a single‑server setup to a cloud‑native, micro‑service architecture capable of handling tens of millions of concurrent requests, explaining each scaling step, the technologies involved, and key design principles for high‑availability systems.
This article explains microservice fundamentals, outlines their advantages, and provides detailed guidance on data design, database selection, and scaling techniques—including decoupling, lightweight APIs, DevOps CI/CD, polyglot persistence, and sharding—to help architects build robust, flexible microservice systems.
This article provides an extensive introduction to software architecture, covering its definition, essential concepts such as systems, subsystems, modules, components, and frameworks, various architectural layers and classifications, architectural levels, strategic versus tactical design, evolution from monoliths to micro‑services, common pitfalls, measurement criteria, and recommended learning resources.
This article explains how to evolve a simple single‑server web application into a highly available, horizontally scalable system by introducing DNS routing, vertical and horizontal scaling, load‑balancing, database replication, sharding, denormalization, SQL/NoSQL choices, caching, CDN, and GeoDNS techniques.
This article presents a comprehensive catalog of thirty architectural patterns—including management, monitoring, performance, data management, design, messaging, resilience, and security modes—explaining their purpose, typical use cases, benefits, and implementation considerations to help engineers build robust, high‑performance distributed applications.
This article presents a comprehensive catalog of thirty architectural patterns—including ambassador, anti‑corruption, gateway aggregation, CQRS, event sourcing, sharding, and circuit breaker—that help developers design, manage, and scale modern backend services efficiently and reliably.
This article explains the basics of MySQL master‑slave replication, illustrates how read/write splitting works to alleviate performance bottlenecks, and shares practical test results showing reduced latency on the master and improved overall throughput when directing reads to replica servers.
This article explains how to architect a highly scalable backend by starting with a simple single‑server setup, then applying vertical and horizontal scaling, database replication, sharding, caching, load balancing, CDN, GeoDNS and stateless design to support over a hundred million concurrent users.
This article explains how Meituan's instant logistics platform evolved over five years, detailing the distributed, high‑concurrency system design, AI‑driven optimizations, multi‑center and unit‑based deployment strategies, and the operational challenges and solutions for achieving high availability and low latency.
This article explains what clusters, distributed systems, and microservices are, compares their characteristics such as scalability, high availability, and load balancing, and shows how they complement each other in modern backend architecture.
This article explains how to design a highly scalable system for tens of millions of users by starting with a simple single‑server setup, applying vertical and horizontal scaling, using load balancers, expanding relational databases, choosing between SQL and NoSQL, and employing advanced techniques such as caching, CDN, and GeoDNS.
This article systematically explains the relationships among high concurrency, high availability, performance, and scalability, defines their quantitative metrics, categorizes sources of change that affect system reliability, and outlines strategies for fault prediction, impact reduction, and rapid recovery in large‑scale services.
The article chronicles Tencent’s shift from QQ chat to enterprise‑grade Tencent Cloud IM, showing how a former QQ team built a globally‑scaled 2800‑node acceleration network and self‑designed storage and QUIC‑optimized messaging engine to support hundreds of millions of concurrent users, meet data‑sovereignty rules, and drive digital transformation in e‑commerce, automotive, education and other sectors, now serving over 100,000 clients and a billion users.
The article outlines a comprehensive, multi‑layer architecture—including DNS routing, L4/L7 load balancing, micro‑service or monolithic deployment, caching, database sharding, hybrid‑cloud deployment, elastic scaling, and tiered degradation—to reliably support systems handling from millions to billions of daily active users under sudden traffic spikes.
Gaode Map transformed its navigation and recommendation services by adopting a Serverless, cloud‑native platform that reduces operational costs, enables millisecond‑level scaling, and eliminates the need for on‑site duty during peak holiday periods, while supporting rapid UI and strategy changes.
The article details Meituan's five‑year journey in instant logistics, describing how its distributed high‑concurrency architecture, AI‑driven optimization, micro‑service evolution, and reliability engineering practices have been continuously refined to achieve low latency, high availability, and cost‑effective scaling.
The article describes Meituan's five‑year journey in instant logistics, detailing the challenges of massive order‑rider matching, high traffic spikes, ultra‑low latency requirements, and how a layered, micro‑service‑based distributed architecture combined with AI techniques was progressively adopted to achieve scalability, reliability, and cost efficiency.
This article provides a comprehensive technical overview of large‑scale distributed website architecture, covering characteristics, goals, patterns, high‑performance, high‑availability, scalability, extensibility, security, and agility considerations, and walks through the evolution of an e‑commerce system with concrete examples and diagrams.
This article explains database sharding fundamentals, including terminology, when to adopt sharding, various global ID generation methods such as auto‑increment, UUID, COMB, and Snowflake, different partitioning strategies, challenges like distributed transactions, and practical expansion and migration solutions.
This article details how Vivo's push notification platform leverages Redis for massive message throughput, identifies bottlenecks encountered during peak traffic, and outlines a series of capacity, clustering, hot‑key, and client‑side optimizations that reduced load by up to 15% and improved response times dramatically.
This article details the evolution of an e‑commerce recommendation system through three architectural versions, highlighting the initial simple design, the challenges that prompted vertical and horizontal splits, the introduction of a configurable pipeline and AB testing, and the final micro‑service‑based, dynamically configurable V3.0 architecture.
This article presents thirty concise architectural principles covering simplicity, iterative development, automation, scalability, concurrency, distributed system design, user experience, and practical trade‑offs, offering a comprehensive guide for architects and engineers to build robust, maintainable software.
The article examines synchronous request‑response microservices, outlining their numerous drawbacks such as tight coupling, scalability limits, failure handling, API versioning challenges, data access coupling, distributed monolith risks, and testing difficulties, while also acknowledging their undeniable advantages and the prevalence of hybrid architectures.
When selecting a storage engine, evaluate business metrics such as user and data volume, read/write bias, and consistency needs, then match those requirements to the strengths and limits of relational databases, key‑value caches, column‑stores, document stores, search engines, and other NoSQL options to achieve the right balance of performance, scalability, and operational cost.
The article walks through the challenges of growing data volumes, compares master‑slave, vertical, horizontal, and sharding‑plus‑partitioning architectures, explains their pros and cons, and provides concrete guidance on selecting and implementing a suitable database solution, including middleware options and real‑world case studies.
This article describes the progressive redesign of an e‑commerce recommendation platform—from a simple strategy‑factory V1.0 through a vertically split V2.0 to a fully configurable, pipeline‑driven V3.0—highlighting architectural challenges, Redis clustering, dynamic configuration, recall and prediction services, and future directions for fine‑grained, explainable recommendations.
This article details the three‑stage evolution of an e‑commerce recommendation framework—V1.0’s simple strategy‑factory design, V2.0’s vertical business split, and V3.0’s configurable pipeline with dynamic server‑client configuration, addressing scalability, isolation, and AB‑testing challenges.
The article outlines a comprehensive backend architecture for handling millions of daily active users, covering DNS routing, layer‑4/7 load balancing, monolithic versus microservice deployment, caching, database sharding, hybrid‑cloud strategies, elastic scaling, and multi‑level degradation mechanisms.
The article explains what hybrid cloud is, outlines five typical use cases such as load scaling, disaster recovery, data backup, application deployment, and dev‑test‑prod workflows, and discusses three major challenges including ecosystem innovation, unified multi‑cloud management, and cloud‑network collaboration.
This article details how the Beike instant‑messaging system was analyzed, bottlenecks identified, and a series of backend optimizations—including business isolation, increased concurrency, computation reduction, and Redis connection‑pool redesign—were applied to boost 300‑person group‑chat throughput from 15 QPS to over 320 QPS, achieving more than a twenty‑fold performance gain.
This article recounts Tencent's journey from its legacy TFS storage to the cloud‑native YottaStore system, detailing the technical challenges, strategic decisions, team dynamics, and the impressive scalability, reliability, and cost benefits that now power major Tencent services and external customers.
This article examines the step‑by‑step evolution of the recommendation framework used by a major e‑commerce service, detailing the shortcomings of the initial V1.0 design, the vertical and modular refinements introduced in V2.0, and the dynamic configuration, pipeline, and service‑oriented enhancements implemented in V3.0 to improve scalability, stability, and fine‑grained experimentation.
This article details how Baidu's search middle platform migrated from script‑based processing to a serverless business‑framework architecture, outlining the technical challenges, design of data ingestion, processing, scheduling, and control layers, and summarizing the efficiency, cost, and performance gains achieved.
This talk introduces the motivation, design, theoretical analysis, and extensive experimental results of Tencent Angel Graph's Graph Attention Multi‑Layer Perceptron (GAMLP) and Node‑Dependent Local Smoothing (NDLS), which address GNN scalability and flexibility by using node‑wise adaptive propagation, attention‑based feature fusion, and a lightweight training pipeline.
This presentation introduces Tencent Angel Graph's NDLS and GAMLP techniques that address GNN scalability and flexibility by adaptively selecting propagation depth per node, employing node‑wise feature and label propagation with attention mechanisms, and demonstrating superior performance on large‑scale and sparse graph benchmarks.
The article outlines a comprehensive backend architecture for handling million‑level daily active users, covering DNS routing, L4/L7 load balancing, monolithic versus microservice deployment, caching, database sharding, hybrid‑cloud deployment, elastic scaling, and multi‑level degradation strategies to ensure high availability under sudden traffic spikes.
This article explains why deploying Kubernetes on bare‑metal servers offers six key benefits—simpler networking, better cost efficiency for demanding workloads, superior performance, stronger security, workload‑specific optimization, and freedom from vendor lock‑in—making it a smarter choice than virtual‑machine‑based solutions.
This article explains SaaS as a software‑delivery model, outlines its presentation, scheduling, business, and data layers, describes essential components such as security, data isolation, configurability, scalability, zero‑downtime upgrades, and multi‑tenant support, and details maturity levels, storage options, tenant identification, and performance optimizations.
This article walks through the step‑by‑step evolution of a basic single‑server MVP architecture into a large‑scale distributed system, using a simulated Taobao example to illustrate ten‑plus architectural stages, key technologies, design principles, and the eventual shift to cloud‑native microservices.
This article explains the role, challenges, and solution of JD Daojia's business gateway, detailing how it aggregates multiple backend services, adopts workflow orchestration to improve code consistency, scalability, and development efficiency, and outlines future architectural considerations.
A group of e‑commerce engineers share their real‑world experiences on selecting technologies, designing architectures, handling rapid growth, and avoiding common mistakes when building a new online store from scratch, offering practical guidance on infrastructure, DevOps, and team organization.
This article explains microservice fundamentals, outlines their advantages and technical traits, and provides practical guidance on data design, database selection, polyglot persistence, scaling strategies, and why MongoDB often fits microservice architectures best.
This article explains what Serverless architecture is, compares it with traditional monolithic setups, outlines its cost and scalability benefits, discusses its drawbacks, and provides a practical guide on the knowledge and tools needed to build Serverless solutions in production.
This article outlines the functional and non‑functional requirements, traffic calculations, service decomposition, and detailed microservice designs needed to build a highly available, scalable Twitter‑style system using distributed caches, databases, and asynchronous processing.
The article examines the definition, pain points, and industry approaches to managing ultra‑complex microservice call networks, highlighting ByteDance's layered architecture, traffic identity marking, and practical recommendations for scaling and governing massive service ecosystems.
The article explains what multi‑cloud means, why it matters for scalability, security and cost management, and outlines a four‑step approach to designing and measuring an effective multi‑cloud strategy for modern enterprises.
This article explains how to transform product requirements into robust technical architectures by addressing uncertainty through strategic principles—suitability, simplicity, evolution—and tactical guidelines covering high concurrency, high availability, and business design, illustrated with logical and physical diagrams.
This article explains microservice fundamentals, outlines their advantages, and dives deep into data‑design considerations such as one‑database‑per‑service, polyglot persistence versus multi‑model databases, and why MongoDB’s dynamic schema, change streams, and sharding make it a strong fit for scalable microservice architectures.
This article explains microservice fundamentals, their advantages, technical characteristics, and detailed data‑design considerations, comparing shared versus per‑service databases, polyglot persistence versus multi‑model databases, and demonstrates why MongoDB is a strong fit for scalable, resilient microservice architectures.
This article explains the fundamentals of load balancing, covering why it is needed for high‑traffic services, the difference between vertical and horizontal scaling, various load‑balancing techniques (DNS, HTTP, IP, link‑layer, hybrid), common algorithms, and the trade‑offs of software versus hardware solutions.
This article explores how integrating Serverless into SaaS platforms can simplify operations, improve tenant isolation, reduce costs, and enable scalable multi‑tenant architectures that better serve large enterprises while addressing the challenges faced by both SaaS providers and Serverless services.
Designing a distributed system involves overcoming major challenges such as heterogeneity, transparency, openness, concurrency, security, scalability, and fault tolerance, each of which must be addressed to build a reliable, extensible, and performant system.
This article presents a comprehensive, practical design for an ultra‑large‑scale user center, covering microservice architecture, API separation, token generation with graceful degradation, data‑sharding strategies, password encryption, asynchronous processing, and detailed monitoring to ensure high availability, performance, and security.
This article details the architecture, data flow, module responsibilities, and successive optimizations of Baidu's short‑video push system, covering personalized timing estimation, user‑group management, frequency‑control redesign, and protobuf‑based compression to handle billion‑scale traffic efficiently.
This article explains how to design and evolve server architectures, load‑balancing, database clustering, caching, message queues, and other techniques to handle high‑concurrency scenarios such as flash sales and timed red‑packet distribution in large‑scale e‑commerce systems.
This article presents a comprehensive set of design practices for building a highly available, high‑performance, and secure user‑center system that can handle hundreds of millions of users, covering service architecture, API design, token degradation, data sharding, security, asynchronous processing, and monitoring.
Zhihu’s Moneta service stores over a trillion rows and faces massive write and read loads; this article explains why TiDB was chosen, how its architecture and features such as HTAP, Raft, Titan and table partitioning enable millisecond‑level query latency, high availability, and seamless scaling.
Large‑scale website architecture must balance massive user traffic, data volume, security threats, and rapid feature changes by adopting layered, distributed designs that emphasize high performance, high availability, scalability, extensibility, and agility, employing techniques such as caching, load balancing, clustering, sharding, and service‑oriented components.
The article explains how shifting complex filtering, validation, and join operations from the database to the application layer reduces scarce database resource usage, improves scalability, and enables more flexible resource allocation for modern web applications.
This article provides a comprehensive technical summary of large‑scale distributed website architecture, covering characteristics, goals, architectural patterns, performance, high‑availability, scalability, extensibility, security, agility, and a detailed evolution roadmap with practical examples and recommendations.
This article explains how to evolve a large‑scale website architecture through stages such as initial single‑server setups, application‑data separation, caching, server clustering, read‑write separation, CDN/reverse proxy, distributed storage, micro‑services, and automation to achieve high availability, scalability, performance and security.
This article analyzes the evolution of large‑scale website architecture, covering stages from single‑server setups to layered, distributed, and clustered designs, and explains how caching, read‑write separation, CDN, asynchronous messaging, redundancy, automation, and security collectively achieve high performance, availability, scalability, and extensibility.
This article provides a thorough overview of distributed systems, explaining their definition, core concepts such as partition and replication, key challenges, essential characteristics, typical components and protocols, a practical request flow example, and a curated list of real‑world implementations to help readers build a solid learning roadmap.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of software architecture, covering its definition, essential concepts such as systems, subsystems, modules, and frameworks, various architectural layers and classifications, evolution from monolithic to microservices, design principles, evaluation criteria, and typical misconceptions to avoid.
