This comprehensive guide explores the fundamentals of distributed systems, covering theoretical foundations, architecture design patterns, consistency models, scalability, deployment, operations, and practical engineering practices for building robust microservice‑based solutions.
This article explains the architecture and processes of transaction and order systems, covering transaction models, system components, billing, forward and reverse flows, and the distinction between transaction and payment systems, providing a comprehensive guide for building robust payment solutions.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of SaaS systems, covering cloud service models (PaaS, IaaS, SaaS), key characteristics, differences from traditional and internet services, classification into business, efficiency, and hybrid types, SaaSification steps, core components, and multi‑tenant architectures with various isolation models.
This article explains how to build a business model diagram for an SDK from a design perspective, covering the definition of business model diagrams, their purpose, expression methods, layered architecture, derivation principles, a six‑step modeling process, and evaluation criteria to ensure clarity, correctness, and extensibility.
This article examines the principles of microservice decomposition and composition, analyzes the risks of improper service splitting such as communication overhead, dependency loops, and chaotic call chains, and offers concrete governance strategies to achieve a balanced, maintainable architecture.
The article reflects on a recent architecture review, highlighting the importance of preparing presenters, analyzing audience knowledge, using unified language from DDD, and clearly defining concepts to avoid misunderstandings and improve communication in technical discussions.
This article explains the fundamental concepts of API gateways, their role in decoupling clients from services, key design considerations such as routing, load balancing, resilience and security, and provides a detailed comparison of popular gateway solutions like OpenResty, Kong, Zuul, and Spring Cloud Gateway.
This article explains the architectural changes introduced in RocketMQ 5.0, including the new stateless Proxy layer, the POP consumption model, message‑level load balancing, and the Controller mode for automatic master‑slave failover, providing detailed diagrams and resource links.
This article explains Nginx’s core architecture—including the master and worker processes, caching mechanisms, and request handling workflow—showing how it achieves high concurrency, efficient resource use, and reliable performance for modern web applications, while also offering additional resources for deeper learning.
This article details Tencent's shift from traditional BI to an AI‑driven intelligent BI platform, describing the challenges of architecture, large‑language‑model integration, and data integration, and presenting the OlaChat framework, unified orchestration, atomic agents, DSL conversion, monitoring, and future roadmap.
This article explains how to implement plugin mechanisms in Java using SPI and ServiceLoader, demonstrates custom configuration approaches, and shows how Spring Boot’s spring.factories can be leveraged for extensible services, providing practical code examples and step‑by‑step guidance for building modular backend applications.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of Kafka, covering its overall structure, key components such as brokers, producers, consumers, topics, partitions, replicas, leader‑follower mechanics, logical and physical storage models, producer and consumer workflows, configuration parameters, partition assignment strategies, rebalancing, log retention and compaction, indexing, zero‑copy transmission, and the reliability concepts that ensure data durability.
This article provides a comprehensive analysis of Artificial Intelligence Data Centers (AIDC), detailing their layered architecture, logical topology, evaluation metrics, and key technical and commercial differences compared to traditional Internet Data Centers (IDC).
This article examines why scalability is a core requirement for AIGC products and presents a comprehensive engineering architecture—including modular design, distributed systems, resource scheduling, queue management, and layered architecture—to achieve high performance, cost efficiency, and long‑term maintainability.
Airbnb’s Android team introduced Trio, a Compose‑only framework built atop the Mavericks state‑management library that replaces Fragment‑based navigation with type‑safe, modular page routing, ViewModel‑driven state, compile‑time validation, and dedicated developer tools, now powering the majority of the app’s screens.
The article explores how software engineers can reduce both essential and accidental complexity by unifying terminology, eliminating side‑effects, applying the KISS principle, and adopting clear architectural and API designs, ultimately delivering more maintainable and understandable systems.
This article details JD Finance’s end‑to‑end migration of its financial app to HarmonyOS NEXT, covering the system’s architecture, component selection, cross‑platform strategies, performance optimizations, new OS features, and lessons learned from the trial and official releases.
This article explains why large‑language‑model agents become hard to manage, outlines the benefits of modular multi‑agent designs, compares several connection architectures, and provides concrete LangGraph code for supervisor‑based, tool‑calling, and custom workflow patterns.
This article analyzes the architectural challenges of building large‑scale distributed systems with multi‑active (cross‑city) capabilities, focusing on data‑layer design, write latency, replication models, sharding techniques, and routing impacts to guide reliable, high‑performance infrastructure decisions.
This article provides a comprehensive technical overview of modern GPU architecture, covering memory hierarchy, compute units, shader execution, rendering pipelines, and performance‑optimisation techniques such as unified shaders, SIMT, warp scheduling, and tile‑based rendering strategies.
Tencent Docs tackles the trade‑offs of monolithic and microservice architectures by implementing a flexible, automated system that merges selected microservices into a few monoliths for private‑cloud scenarios, reducing runtime costs, deployment overhead, image size, memory usage and CPU consumption while preserving performance and scalability.
The article dispels the myth that front‑end development is simple by outlining common misconceptions, detailing the many technical, design, performance, security, and collaboration challenges involved, and emphasizing its critical role in delivering modern, responsive, and competitive web applications.
This article details Baidu's visual search architecture evolution, covering the shift from a PHP/HHVM stack to Golang with the GDP framework, the adoption of the ExGraph graph engine, comprehensive system redesign, and stability infrastructure built to support rapid product iteration and AI model integration.
Baidu Visual Search upgraded its PHP/HHVM stack to Golang, introduced a Backend‑For‑Frontend layer, refactored presentation and system modules with the GDP framework and ExGraph, and built comprehensive monitoring and self‑healing tools, delivering a modular, scalable, and stable AI‑driven search platform.
This article explains the design and implementation of an event‑driven strategy‑center system for full‑chain marketing, covering architecture choices, process flow, domain modeling, strategy templates, code examples, and idempotency handling to achieve scalable and extensible marketing workflows.
This article explains how Tencent Docs tackled the high runtime, deployment, and image‑distribution costs of a large microservice fleet by building a flexible architecture that can merge selected services into a few monolith binaries for private deployments, while retaining microservices for public scenarios, and shares the tooling, configuration, challenges, and performance gains achieved.
This article explores the CQRS (Command Query Responsibility Segregation) pattern, detailing its core concepts, implementation approaches—including logical, storage, and asynchronous separation—its benefits and challenges, and practical best‑practice guidelines for applying CQRS in modern high‑performance, scalable systems.
To meet soaring marketing‑tool demand with limited front‑end staff, the team built a three‑layer, micro‑frontend architecture—page container, scenario template, and business customization—augmented by a plugin‑style micro‑kernel, enabling over 50 % faster development, consistent UI, and configurable blocks, while acknowledging added complexity and performance trade‑offs.
This article recounts the evolution of Ctrip's vacation product log platform—from a single‑table DB solution to a platformized ES + HBase architecture—detailing the challenges of massive data volume, the design of RowKey, write and query flows, and the subsequent business and supplier empowerment.
This article chronicles the multi‑generation architectural evolution of JD's advertising platform, explaining why a good code architecture must be extensible, reusable, maintainable and stable, and describing how domain‑driven design, aggregates, and ability orchestration were introduced to solve the challenges of complex, multi‑scenario business requirements.
This article describes the development trajectory of Ctrip's travel product log system, detailing its three major phases—from a single‑table DB approach to a platform‑based solution and finally an empowered version—while discussing technical challenges, design decisions, and the implementation of HBase, Elasticsearch, and related components to handle billions of log entries efficiently.
This article details the design and evolution of a low‑code platform used for electronic menu and TV screens in retail stores, covering architecture diagrams, component decomposition, material market, plugin system, schema compatibility, data fetching optimizations, and resource caching strategies to improve scalability and stability.
This comprehensive guide compares five popular message queue systems—Kafka, Pulsar, RabbitMQ, RocketMQ, and NSQ—covering their architectures, core concepts, selection criteria, feature differences such as ordering, latency, durability, scaling, and operational considerations, to help engineers select the most suitable solution for their use cases.
The article examines modern software development challenges, explains why thorough design and modeling are essential before coding, and outlines three key practices—business modeling, business process analysis, and system modeling—along with class analysis techniques to improve collaboration, reduce rework, and build robust architectures.
The article examines GitHub’s transition from a monolithic Ruby on Rails architecture to a micro‑service model, outlines the strategic steps, highlights the technical and organizational challenges, and presents Warner’s advice on when and how to adopt microservices for companies of different sizes.
The article provides an in‑depth technical overview of NVIDIA's Grace Hopper superchip, detailing its heterogeneous CPU‑GPU architecture, high‑bandwidth NVLink‑C2C interconnect, unified memory model, programming support, and system‑level scaling features that together deliver unprecedented performance for high‑performance computing and large‑scale AI workloads.
This article analyses the ambiguous concepts of BFF in microservice architectures, distinguishing between “fat” BFFs that handle extensive orchestration and “skinny” BFFs that act mainly as transparent gateways, and discusses their responsibilities, advantages, drawbacks, and suitable scenarios.
This article explains the concept, value, three‑layer architecture, and practical implementations of a data middle platform, illustrating how it standardizes data, forms a middle‑office organization, and drives cost‑effective business empowerment through examples from Alibaba, NetEase, and other enterprises.
This comprehensive guide to backend development explains essential system and architecture design principles, networking strategies, fault and exception handling, monitoring and alerting, service governance, testing methodologies, and deployment practices, offering best‑practice advice and highlighting common pitfalls for building reliable, scalable internet services.
This article details how Bilibili redesigned its monitoring system to overcome explosive metric growth by separating collection and storage, adopting VictoriaMetrics, implementing zone‑based scheduling, automating PromQL query replacement, and using Flink for efficient pre‑aggregation, resulting in dramatically lower latency and higher stability.
This article outlines the business background, detailed payment workflow, associated product and coupon management, and practical implementation tips for designing a robust payment system, covering process decomposition, sequence diagrams, data structures, transaction handling, and key technical considerations such as transaction management, locking, and settlement accuracy.
This article explains Apache Pulsar’s fast‑growing adoption, its compute‑storage separation architecture, BookKeeper‑based persistence, multi‑tenant support, flexible subscription models, and fault‑tolerant design, providing a comprehensive overview for developers interested in modern distributed messaging middleware.
Amid the digital transformation era, Kubernetes has become essential for modern cloud computing, and this article demystifies its inner workings by detailing its master and node components, service discovery, storage orchestration, networking, high availability, flexible resource management, and thriving ecosystem.
This article analyzes the complexities of payment system design, covering business background, modular process breakdown, sequence diagrams for pre‑payment, payment integration, post‑payment stages, and detailed structural design, while also highlighting related business components and practical implementation tips.
This article presents a comprehensive technical deep‑dive into Go‑Job, a Go‑native distributed task scheduling framework, covering its background, three‑layer architecture, service and task design, SDK modules, code examples, practical integration steps, and future enhancements for robust backend operations.
This article outlines practical criteria for judging a programmer’s competence, describing characteristic behaviors and abilities of junior, mid‑level, senior, and veteran developers while emphasizing the importance of code quality, architectural thinking, and soft‑skill development.
This article provides a detailed overview of modern data center architecture, covering physical and IT infrastructure, network topologies such as three‑tier and spine‑leaf, storage solutions like DAS, NAS and SAN, server designs, cloud data‑center components, physical site considerations, and various data‑center deployment models.
The article examines why internet architectures have become increasingly complex, explains the unique challenges of flash‑sale (秒杀) business scenarios, and presents practical backend optimization techniques such as request filtering, Redis caching with atomic operations, ordered queues, data‑layer safeguards, and unit‑based isolation for global deployments.
This article examines why microservice architecture emerged, the specific issues it addresses in monolithic systems, the challenges it introduces, and the essential design principles such as business‑logic, scalability, reliability, and performance‑driven service decomposition.
The article outlines the challenges of payment systems, detailing business background, process decomposition, flow sequencing, structural design, related product and coupon management, and summarizes key technical considerations such as transaction management, locking, retry mechanisms, and fund settlement for robust backend development.
The project consolidates three separate detail‑page implementations into a single, reusable framework that separates business, component, and framework layers, employs dependency‑injection and scoped lifecycles to support diverse scenarios while ensuring stability through comprehensive logging, monitoring, and staged gray‑release testing.
This article presents a comprehensive case study of refactoring a consumer installment platform, covering business restructuring, technical debt resolution, design of domain and module layers, code redesign with design patterns, phased deployment, monitoring setup, and the overall benefits achieved.
This article explains how to set up Rust for Android development, covering installation, creating a demo project, using JNI to call Rust functions, building the shared library, integrating it into an Android app, and designing a scalable architecture with event dispatch and Protobuf.
This article details the architecture, business value, configuration, storage choices, performance challenges, and future plans of Bilibili's live streaming ranking system, explaining how it uses MySQL and Redis, supports automated scoring, and handles high‑traffic read/write demands.
The article explains software architecture concepts, the architect’s duties of extracting requirements, designing and implementing solutions, and presents methodologies such as the C4 model, 4+1 view and domain‑driven design, while outlining how to develop architectural thinking through study, practice, reflection and ongoing learning.
This article describes the four-stage evolution of the Lego client‑side logging system—covering its initial zero‑to‑one architecture, the separation of business and technical logs, real‑time reporting improvements, and the latest architecture redesign that boosts performance, reduces overhead, and provides a safe migration path.
This article explains why high‑availability design and comprehensive monitoring are essential for modern big‑data platforms, outlines a layered architecture, and provides practical guidance on health checks, alerting, and data‑quality monitoring across storage, compute, scheduling, and service layers.
The article discusses a top architect's interview with a game company about microservice adoption, explains why real‑time performance and stateful requirements often make microservices unsuitable for game servers, and presents multiple expert opinions highlighting latency, network overhead, and team size considerations.
This article details how Alipay’s Mantiantianxing platform was designed and built to unify page construction, fine‑grained operation, and data feedback, thereby solving low R&D and operation efficiency, reducing duplication, and enabling rapid, scalable innovation across multiple product front‑ends and back‑ends.
This article explains the importance of clear application layering, compares Alibaba's multi‑layer architecture with optimized practices, details the conversion between various domain models (DO, DTO, BO, AO, VO, Query), and provides guidelines for maintaining clean responsibilities across Controller, Service, Manager, and DAO layers.
This article presents a comprehensive overview of the evolution from traditional Lambda‑based real‑time data warehouse solutions to a data‑lake‑integrated architecture, detailing the shortcomings of legacy designs, the iterative improvements made at JD Technology, and the technical and operational challenges encountered during implementation.
Facing growing complexity in video streaming, the team overhauled a legacy codebase by redefining architecture, improving code quality, and boosting engineering efficiency through componentized micro‑services, static analysis, automated testing, and gradual rollout, ultimately achieving decoupled, fast‑iteration capabilities across the platform.
This article explains why database sharding is needed, how to identify performance bottlenecks, and provides step‑by‑step guidance on SQL tuning, table redesign, architectural changes, and practical horizontal and vertical sharding techniques with real‑world e‑commerce examples.
To tackle mounting complexity in a fast‑growing video streaming platform, the team executed a large‑scale refactor that introduced a vertical‑layered, horizontally modular architecture, enforced coding standards and ArchUnit guards, applied incremental safe refactoring and gray‑release monitoring, ultimately reducing core classes to seven, improving code quality and engineering efficiency.
This article demonstrates how to apply Google’s Wire tool in a production‑grade Go web service, covering project layout, a four‑layer architecture, code generation for constructors, comparisons with dig and inject, and practical CLI usage to streamline dependency injection and improve development efficiency.
The article reviews how 2023 challenged the microservices paradigm, highlighting Google’s runtime‑driven architecture that slashes latency and cost, Amazon Prime Video’s shift back to a monolith for massive savings, and broader industry reflections on the hidden drawbacks and future of microservices.
The article explains how to analyze, decompose, and design a complex payment workflow by breaking it into modules, defining pre‑payment, payment‑gateway, and post‑payment sequences, and outlining the essential data structures such as account management, transaction records, and order handling, while also highlighting practical implementation considerations.
The article examines a large-scale supply‑chain system’s architecture, highlighting issues with service placement and dependencies, proposing an intermediate API layer for aggregation, distributed calls, and decoration, and ultimately recommending a Backend‑for‑Frontend approach to tailor APIs per client while reducing coupling.
This article describes how two large front‑end platforms were systematically merged—covering background analysis, deployment optimization, repository consolidation, application‑type detection, routing, environment variables, request encapsulation, permission handling, and the resulting improvements in development efficiency and user experience.
This article explains the practical problems encountered when using Kafka directly, introduces SFMQ—a Kafka‑based HTTP proxy that unifies client access, simplifies upgrades, provides delay and transaction capabilities via Redis, and demonstrates how its architecture resolves producer, consumer, and operational challenges.
This article examines Pinterest's evolution through four development phases, the core technologies it adopted, and how it transitioned from complex clustering to a simpler sharding architecture to achieve scalable, high‑availability data storage.
The article explains why front‑back end separation is needed, outlines common collaboration patterns, presents a staged migration from MVC to SPA, and provides detailed API request/response standards, interface versioning, and practical steps for implementing clean separation in modern web projects.
This article explains the MVVM (Model-View-ViewModel) architecture for modern Android development, detailing its three core components, their responsibilities, and provides a step‑by‑step example with Jetpack components, including LiveData, ViewModel, View Binding, and complete code snippets to build a simple user list UI.
This article examines the complexities of payment systems by breaking down business processes into modular flows, illustrating sequence diagrams for pre‑payment, payment integration, and post‑payment stages, and proposing a structured data model that addresses transaction records, account management, order handling, and related e‑commerce features.
This article explains how to design and implement a recommendation system by leveraging a four‑layer cloud‑native stack, covering virtualization, micro‑service migration, service governance, elasticity, cloud‑native business capabilities, and chaos‑engineering‑based stability practices to achieve cost‑effective, high‑performance, and reliable recommendation services.
These core principles—minimal dependency, weak dependency, distribution, rate limiting, degradable design, balanced risk, fault prevention and isolation, no single point of failure, self‑protection, automatic failover, and retry/idempotency/compensation—guide the design of highly available systems by reducing risk, ensuring redundancy, and protecting services at all layers.
The article explains why granting software teams independent decision‑making power speeds up delivery, reduces coordination overhead, and outlines three architectural approaches—loosely coupled subdomains, modular monoliths, and microservices—to achieve effective team autonomy.
This article provides a detailed overview of Apache Kafka, covering its core characteristics, distributed architecture, key components such as topics, partitions, brokers, producers, consumers, ZooKeeper, and common application scenarios like log collection, event‑driven architecture, real‑time analytics, and monitoring.
This article offers a detailed overview of Nacos, an open‑source service discovery and configuration platform, covering its core functions, architectural components, and modules while also providing promotional links to extensive Alibaba architecture and Java interview resources.
This article explains what microservices are, outlines their advantages and disadvantages, compares them with monolithic architectures, and provides practical guidance on when and how to adopt a microservice approach for scalable, maintainable backend systems.
This article explains the origins and concepts of IT architecture and governance, compares traditional and internet‑era enterprise structures, reviews major standards such as COBIT, ITIL and IT4IT, outlines practical governance methods, and showcases JD.com’s concrete implementation across infrastructure, applications, and organizational processes.
This article compares the four major API architectural styles—RPC, SOAP, REST, and GraphQL—by explaining how each works, outlining their strengths and weaknesses, presenting real‑world use cases, and offering guidance on selecting the most suitable style for a given project.
This guide compares REST, GraphQL, and asynchronous APIs, outlining their core principles, advantages, disadvantages, and ideal use cases, and provides a side‑by‑side comparison to help developers choose the most suitable API style for their applications.
This article presents an in‑depth overview of the Luban full‑stack low‑code development platform, describing its goals, architecture, metadata design, drag‑and‑drop page creation, data visualization, API generation, multi‑tenant and multi‑environment support, version management, and real‑world case studies that demonstrate its efficiency and extensibility.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of microservice architecture, detailing its definition, key characteristics, major design patterns such as Database per Service, Event Sourcing, CQRS, Saga, BFF, API Gateway, Strangler, Circuit Breaker, externalized configuration, and contract testing, along with their pros, cons, and appropriate scenarios for adoption in large‑scale enterprise applications.
This article explains why front‑back end separation is needed, describes the evolution from MVC to SPA, outlines the principles of responsibility and concern separation, and provides a detailed API specification—including request/response formats, pagination, and special field handling—to improve collaboration and reduce integration effort.
This article presents a comprehensive case study of refactoring a consumer installment system, detailing the background, technical debt, redesign goals, domain‑driven design, module splitting, code design with Java patterns, migration process, monitoring setup, and the overall benefits achieved.
This article systematically outlines the requirements, evolution stages, functional and non‑functional specifications, and component design of a scalable, high‑availability enterprise notification platform that supports multi‑channel push (email, SMS, chat, WeChat, DingTalk, etc.) through a microservice‑based architecture.
2023 saw a wave of high‑profile tech leaders—Google’s engineers, Amazon Prime Video, and DHH—questioning the microservices paradigm, presenting data‑driven case studies that show dramatic latency and cost reductions when moving to monolithic or runtime‑managed architectures, and urging architects to reassess scalability versus complexity trade‑offs.
Microservices, also known as microservice architecture, is a cloud‑native approach that breaks a single application into loosely coupled, independently deployable services, each with its own tech stack, communicating via REST APIs, event streams, or message brokers, and organized around business capabilities and bounded contexts.
In 2023, major tech companies like Google, Amazon, and Uber publicly questioned the benefits of microservices, revealing new architectural approaches that promise lower latency, reduced costs, and simpler deployment, while highlighting the challenges and pitfalls that have led many teams to revert to monolithic designs.
This article examines whether a Service layer in Java Spring projects truly requires interfaces, debunking common arguments, exploring development workflows without interfaces, discussing project structuring for single and multiple implementations, and concluding when interfaces are beneficial or unnecessary.
This article analyzes common problems in a large‑scale supply‑chain backend—such as unclear service boundaries, tangled dependencies, and client‑specific adaptations—and proposes a layered solution using a dedicated API layer, BFF pattern, Spring Cloud components, and clear team division to improve modularity, reduce code duplication, and streamline development.
This article systematically outlines the architecture of large‑language‑model (LLM) agents, examines their key technical challenges such as role‑playing, memory design, reasoning and multi‑agent collaboration, and explores emerging research directions and practical case studies.
This article reviews the common business and technical architectures used in large language model (LLM) applications, explains AI Embedded, AI Copilot, and AI Agent modes—including single‑ and multi‑agent systems—and offers guidance on selecting appropriate technology stacks such as prompt‑only, function‑calling agents, RAG, and fine‑tuning.
The article analyzes coupling problems caused by multiple backend controllers and third‑party push interfaces, proposes a dedicated TPS microservice to encapsulate third‑party calls, demonstrates Feign integration with Java code examples, and concludes with a summary of benefits and further considerations.
This article traces the evolution of software architecture to microservices, explains their core characteristics, lists advantages and drawbacks, and provides a comprehensive guide to essential design patterns such as database per service, event sourcing, CQRS, Saga, BFF, API gateway, Strangler, circuit breaker, externalized configuration, and consumer‑driven contract testing, with guidance on when to adopt each.
In 2023, leading tech companies like Google and Amazon publicly criticized the microservices model, presenting new architectural approaches that combine logical monoliths with automated runtimes, dramatically cutting latency and cost while prompting many other firms to abandon microservices in favor of simpler, more efficient monolithic designs.
This guide explains the seven core UML diagrams—class, sequence, component, deployment, use‑case, state, and activity—detailing when and how to use each across requirement analysis, architecture design, and detailed design to produce clear, actionable software design documentation.
This article explains the weak dependency principle, contrasts it with the less‑dependency principle, and presents concrete microservice architecture strategies—including module splitting, independent deployment, asynchronous messaging, interface abstraction, fault‑tolerance, and governance—to improve system flexibility, scalability, and high availability.
